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Barley Barley,
Hordeum vulgare,
is an ancient cultivated cereal that was in use even before wheat. Pliny reported it as the most ancient
human food, and even today it is believed to be the oldest of all cultivated
plants. Barley was known to all
ancient civilizations of the Old World, and the Lake Dwellers of Europe knew
about three different varieties.
Vavilov believed that barley originated in the arid lands of
Southwestern Asia, Northern Africa and also in Southeastern Asia. It arrived in the Western Hemisphere in the
16th or 17th Century. Barley is an annual that tends to
become perennial. It is related to
wheat that it resembles to a great extent.
It usually attains a height of no more than three feet. The flower is a dense head with three sessile
spikelets alternating at each joint of the straight axis. Most barley is bearded, although some are
without beards. The grains that are
often colored remain enclosed in a husk formed by the subtending scales. Grain structure is similar to that of
other cereals. The genus Hordeum contains
over 20 species, most of which are weeds in temperate regions. Hordeum vulgare consists of many
different strains. Classification of
the different species is difficult and opinions differ. Nevertheless, there seems to be two
well-defined groups, the 6-rowed forms and the 2-rowed forms. In the former (H. vulgare & H.
intermedium), all the spikelets are fertile. In the latter (H. distichum & H. deficiens),
the lateral spikelets are sterile, so that only two rows develop. It is not known which group is the
ancestor of H. vulgare.
The wild barley, H. spontaneum, of Western Asia is generally
considered to be the progenitor of our cultivated forms, but it is possible
that there may have been two ancestral species (Hill 1952). This is a very hardy cereal with a
short growing season so that it can be grown at high latitudes and
altitudes. It is adapted to a wide
variety of soils and climates. In the
Rocky Mountains of the United States it is grown at 7,500 ft. elevation and
in the Andes at 11,000 ft. In Alaska
it is produced at latitude of 65 deg. North and in Russia it can be grown on
the shores of the Arctic Ocean. Also
barley is not confined to solely colder regions, as it is an important crop
in Turkey, France and California where both winter and spring barley crops
are grown. The main barley centers
are Japan and China, Russia, Turkey and Rumania; Western Europe; northern
India; California and the northern prairie states (Hill 1952).
Barley was the principal source of bread flour until the 16th century
and has remained a staple food in northern countries through the 20th
Century. Wheat has generally replaced
barley by the 21st Century. Barley
ahs a high nutritive value although it is poor flour for bread due to the low
gluten content. Unleavened barley
cakes are a favorite food in rural Scotland and other northern
countries. The husk is ground off
which yields pot barley. If more of
the grain is ground the familiar pearl barley is produced. It is widely used in soups. Barley is also used in breakfast foods and
food for small children. The 6-rowed
types have higher protein content and are principally used for food purposes,
both for humans and livestock. Although most of the crop is used
as a feed for livestock, about 20-25 percent is used as a source of malt for
making alcohol, whisky, beer and similar beverages and various malt extracts
and breakfast foods. For this purpose
the 2-rowed types, with a low protein content, a softer, mealy endosperm and
think hull are preferred. Barley is
also used for hay and pasture and as a smother crop to kill weeds. The straw is used for livestock feed and
bedding. Russia leads the world in the
production of barley with China, the United States and Germany with lesser
acreage. Rye,
Secale cereale,
is of more recent origin than the other cereals. It is believed that S. montanum, a wild species of
Afghanistan and Turkestan, may be the wild ancestor. But some also believe that S.
anatolicum of Asia Minor is the ancestor. Nevertheless rye is most likely a native of the Caspian and
Black Seas region of Central Eurasia.
It has been cultivated for a much shorter time than the other
cereals. No traces of rye have been
found in ruins of Egypt or the Lake Dwellings, although the Greeks and Romans
knew the plant. Rye is related to barley and wheat
and resembles the former in habit.
The grain looks more like wheat.
The stalks are slender and tough, reaching a maximum height of 6
ft. The leaves are bluish in
color. The heads consist of a large
number of spikelets that are produced singly at the joints of the axis and
each one contains two fertile flowers.
The grains have a normal structure. There are few varieties of rye. Rye is very adaptable and will
produce satisfactory crops in regions of severe winter temperatures and at
high altitudes. It does well on poor
soil and in arid areas, and has been called the “grain of poverty.” However, it thrives best on more fertile
soil and in a mild climate. Rye is primarily a plant of Europe
where over 90 percent of the world’s crop is produced and consumed. It is used there principally for brad
because the grain contains gluten.
Rye bread is dark colored and soggy and has a slight bitter
flavor. Until the middle of the 19th
Century it was the main food of one-third of Europe’s population. Rye became an important bread crop in
America after 1776. Rye may also be used for hay and
pasture, as a winter cover to prevent erosion and leaching, as a sand binder
and in crop rotation. The straw is
valuable for it is very tough and was once in demand for hats, bedding, and
packing purposes and in the manufacture of paper and various other straw
products. The grain is used for
livestock feed and as a source of whisky and alcohol. Russia is the main producer of
rye. Germany, Poland and other
central European countries also produce large amounts. North America exports considerable amounts
of rye to other countries. There has never been any
cultivated wild oat plant found even though those that escape cultivated
fields often appear wild. Therefore
the ancestral home of oats is difficult to verify. Avena sativa is the main commercial
species. The wild species Avena fativa or A. brevis may
be ancestors of cultivated oats. It
probably had multiple origins, some emanating from Abyssinia others from the
Mediterranean area and from China.
The Lake Dwellers of Switzerland grew oats but it was unknown in the
Mediterranean region at that same period. The height of oats varies from 2-5
feet. The leaves are abundant and
bluish-green; the inflorescence is a one-sided or spreading panicle that may
be either erect or drooping. The
panicles contain about 75 spikelets, which are 2-to many-flowered and which
are protected by long pendant outer scales.
The grain that is surrounded by a hull formed by the inner scales,
except in the “naked” varieties, contains two aleurone layers. Avena
sativa,
the
principal cultivated species, is variable in growth form and has been
improved by breeding and selection.
Other cultivated species are the side oat, A. orientalis, the
red oat, A. byzantina, the naked oat, A. nuda, and the short
oat, A. brevis. Both winter and spring oats are
grown, the former in milder climates as are found in the Mediterranean area
and California. Spring oats are
adapted best in the cool moist climates such as are characteristic of
Northern Europe and northeastern North America. Commercial oat crops may be harvested farther north than any
other cereal except rye. They reach
latitude of 69 deg. North in Alaska and 65 deg. North in Scandinavia. An island climate is especially
favorable. By the middle of the 20th
Century one third of all cultivated land in Scotland was devoted to Oats and
in Ireland over half of the land.
Heavy soils are preferred, but oats may be grown on any tillable
soil. The genus has a high water
requirement and so is not profitable in regions of high temperature unless
the plants are heavily irrigated. The fields are sown broadcast and
are cultivated and harrowed. Other crops
may be planted with oats. Harvest is
when the leaves are still green and when the grain is not fully ripe. Stacking and capping the stalks improve
the quality. Oats are cut with a
scythe or harvester similar to hay. This is the most nutritious of all
cereals for humans because of the high fat, protein and mineral content. Oatmeal has muscle building qualities and
because of its high energy content is especially well suited as a food in
cold weather and by people who lead an active outdoor life. It has been proven to lower cholesterol
levels in the human body. The protein
material does not occur in the form of gluten and thus is not suited for
making bread. Its main use is in
cakes, biscuits and breakfast food.
Oatmeal is prepared by grinding the grains coarsely between
stones. Rolled oats are made more
carefully. Grains are thoroughly
cleaned and kiln dried. They are
graded by size and run through millstones, which grind off the husk. The husks are removed by suction, and the
remaining groats are softened and crushed by rollers in
steam chests. Further processing to
reduce cooking time is widely practiced, but this invariably results in a
loss of flavor. Oats is the principal grain feed
for horses and may be used for other livestock except pigs. Usually 70 percent or more of the domestic
crop is used directly on the farms where it is grown. Oats may also be grown for hay or green
forage and are used in crop rotation or as nurse plants. The United States has led the
world in the production of oats, with Iowa, Minnesota, Illinois and Wisconsin
leading. The flavor of crops grown in
Oregon is especially good but the production is relatively low. Europe, including Russia, are also large
producers A large number of widely
cultivated African grasses are called sorghums. They include some of the first wild species to be domesticated
by humans. Sorghum was grown in Egypt
before 2,200 B.C. and has continued as an important crop there ever
since. It was cultivated in China and
India in ancient times. Sorghums have
been dispersed from Africa to all temperate regions as well as in the
tropics. They are less nutritious
than maize but they are a staple food in Africa and Asia. Sorghums are also used for livestock feed
and forage; in the manufacture of brushes, paper and syrup; and in Asia for
many other purposes. Sorghums are tall coarse annuals
that grow to a height of 3-15 feet and resemble maize in growth form. The inflorescence is a dense head or
panicle, and the grains are smaller and rounder than those of the true
cereals. The root system is shallow
and twice as extensive as that of maize, and the leaf area is only one half
as great. These characteristics along
with the highly absorptive nature of the roots and the ability of the leaves
to roll up in dry weather enable the plants to survive a great amount of heat
and evaporation. Their low water
requirement renders them especially drought resistant so they are good crops
in semiarid and arid regions where the growth of maize is restricted. In North America the cultivated
sorghums are usually referred to as Sorghum vulgare. This was derived from the perennial
Johnson grass, Sorghum halepensis, and Old World species grown as a
forage grass inn the warmer areas of both hemispheres. In other areas the various varieties are
often considered as distinct species.
Four types of sorghum are grown in North America. These include the grass sorghums, such as
Sudan grass (var. sudanensis) and the Tunis grass (S. virgatum),
used exclusively for hay and pasturage; the broom corns, used in the
manufacture of brushes; the sweet or saccharine sorghums, used for forage and
for syrup production; and the grain or nonsaccharine sorghums, which are
cultivated for the grain and to some extent for forage. It has been suspected that both the sweet
and grain sorghums were known to the early colonists in North America, but
the plants failed to establish.
However, they have become increasingly important since the middle of
the 19th Century. <bot689> Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) [Tropical
Africa] Broomcorn, Sorghum
vulgare var. technicum, has stems that are dry and the inflorescence is a long,
loose, many-branched panicle with a short axis. The spikelets are small and produce reddish-brown seeds. The elongated branches of the panicle are
used in the manufacture of brooms and brushes. Broomcorn was probably derived by selection from a sweet
sorghum. It has been cultivated in
Europe for centuries and has been grown in North America since 1797. Sweet
sorghums, Sorghum vulgare var. saccharatum, also called sorgos or
forage sorghums, are tall leafy plants with an abundant sweet juice. They are used in the manufacture of a
syrup that has a distinctive but pleasant taste. They are also used for forage and silage. The black amber sorgos are from China and
were introduced into North America in 1853 from France. The other types, such as sumac, gooseneck
and orange, originated in South Africa and were brought to the southeastern
United States from Natal in 1857. If
used for livestock feed, caution must be taken to harvest the crop before
heavy frost as this can raise the prussic acid content.
Grain sorghum plants are stockier than the sweet sorghums and have dry
or only slightly juicy pith. They
have been raised in North America since 1874 when durea was introduced. This was followed by kafir in 1876, milo
in 1880-1885, shallu in 1890, the koliangs from 1808-1910, feterita in 1906
and 1908 and hegari in 1908 (Hill 1952).
Over fifty varieties and hybrids have been grown. Grain sorghums are especially well adapted
to the conditions of soil and climate that prevail in the southern Great
Plains and drier points west. The
grain is valuable as livestock feed and forage, but harvest should be made
before frost to avoid a high prussic acid content. In some countries these sorghums furnish a staple food for
humans as well as for livestock, and have many industrial uses as well. During World War II much sorghum was used
to make industrial alcohol and other products previously derived from sugar
cane. Sorghum syrup is prized for use
on pancakes. Durras are the principal type of
grain sorghum grown in Northern Africa, Southwestern Asia and parts of India,
where millions of acres are cultivated.
The plants have dry stems; compact, goose necked, bearded heads;
flattened seeds; and they mature early.
The seeds are useful as poultry feed.
Sometimes other varieties are grouped under the durras. In North America white durra (var. cernuum,
was at one time popular and was grown under the name of Egyptian corn or
Jerusalem corn. A dwarf form is
somewhat more common. The brown
durra, var. durra, has also been grown in California. Kafir
corn, Sorghum vulgare var. caffrorum, is native to tropical
Africa but has been spread worldwide.
It is an important food plant and many forms are cultivated. Its peculiar and characteristic flavor is
not widely appreciated in North America, but it is highly nutritious and is
similar in maize in composition and ease of digestion. The plants are stout, stocky and from 4-7
feet in height. The leafy stems have
slightly acid juicy pith and are valuable as forage. The inflorescences are long, slender,
cylindrical, beardless heads that produce small, oval, white or colored
seeds, which are late to mature.
Standard Blackhull kafir has been the most important variety of all
the grain sorghums grown in the United States. The
milos, Sorghum vulgare var. subglabrescens, are also of African
origin. They have slightly juicy
stems; compact, usually bearded heads that are usually recurved or goose
necked; and large soft yellow or white seeds. They frequently produce suckers. The plants are adapted to moisture conditions and respond well
to irrigation. Dwarf yellow milo has
been ranked second in importance among the grain sorghums. Over 12 varieties have been grown in North
America. Maturation is late but a bit
earlier than kafir. Shallu,
Sorghum vulgare var. roxburghii, is a late-maturing sorghum that was
introduced from India where it is extensively grown as a winter crop. It has tall, dry, slender stems and long
open panicles. The small, hard, white
seeds are exposed when mature. The
Gulf States of North America generally produce this variety. The
kaoliangs, Sorghum vulgare var. nervosum, are from China and
constitute one of the oldest and most important crops in that region. They have furnished grain, sugar and
forage for thousands of years and all parts of the plant have some economic
value. Kaoliangs have dry slender
stalks with few leaves; loose or compact erect heads, and small brown or
white seeds. By maturing early they
can be grown farther north than the other grain sorghums, but the yield is
comparatively low. They have never
been widely grown in North America. Feterita,
Sorghum vulgare var. caudatum, is an importation from the Sudan. It has dry, erect and compact stalks, oval
heads and very large, soft, white seeds.
It matures early and produces a crop in seasons with a limited amount
of water. Three kinds have been grown
mainly in Kansas and Texas. Hegari,
Sorghum vulgare var. caffrorum, is a form of kafir. It produces leafy juicy stems, which
sucker freely, and in other respects it seems to be intermediate between
kafir and feterita. It is very
variable as to maturation and yield.
It has been grown to some extent in Arizona, New Mexico and Texas.
Millet is a term loosely applied to a large number of cultivated
grasses that have very small seeds.
The millets are used for forage and as a food for both humans and
livestock. The importance of millet
is not appreciated in North America or Europe, but almost one-third of the
world’s population uses these grains as regular food. The plants have abundant foliage and are
much used for forage. Millets are
very drought-resistant and have been grown extensively in the Great Plains
area of North America. They are cold
sensitive and cannot be planted where frost lingers. In North America millets are used mainly
as hay crops, pasturage and for birdseed, although some varieties are sued
for grain. Millets are among the most
ancient of food grains that have been grown in China since 2,700 B.C. Their origin is though to be in Eastern
Asia. The most important varieties
are discussed as follows: There are over 12 varieties of
foxtail millets, Setaria italica, which commonly occur
as weeds. They bear different names,
such as German, Italian, Hungarian and Siberian millet. The plants are small compared to other
cultivated grasses and they have a dense spike for an inflorescence, with
many long or short bristles. One
group has short, thick and erect heads.
Another group has long and drooping heads. Their origin is not definitely known but there is some
agreement that they have been derived from Setaria
viridis,
a common wild grass of the Old World.
This plant is thought to have originated in Easter Asia and not
Europe, as the common names would indicate.
Millet must have been domesticated in the Orient in ancient times for
it was one of the five sacred plants in China as early as 2,700 B.C. Millet seeds are abundant in the lake
Dwellings of Switzerland, but the plant was seemingly unknown in Syria and
Greece. Foxtail millets have been
widely grown in China, Japan, India and the East Indies as well as other
parts of Asia the Old World and North Africa. Cultivation has also been in North America especially as a
forage crop. To prepare foxtail
millet as a food, the grains are boiled or parched. It is important as a hay and forage crop. It has been widely used in crop
rotation, and as a supplementary or catch crop after some other crop has
failed. This is made possible because
of its only 6-10 weeks required for maturity. Proso,
Panicum miliaceum, is true millet, the milium of Roman
times. It has also been called Broomcorn Millet, Hog Millet, Russian Millet and Indian Millet. Proso probably originated in the eastern
Mediterranean region, and it has been under long cultivation in Europe
especially in the Swiss Lake Dweller community. It grows to a height of 2-3 feet with an open, branching,
compact or one-sided panicle. The
grains are multicolored and are closely surrounded by the scales of the
spikelet. Proso is grown in Russia,
China, India, Japan and Southern Europe.
It became popular in North America for use as a forage grain because
it is very nutritious. The grains
contain carbohydrates, 10 percent protein and 4 percent fat. It is excellent for hogs and is much used
as a substitute for maize or sorghum.
Palatable bread is made from fresh grains. Pearl
Millet, Pennisetum glaucum, is a tall plant that grows 6-15 ft. tall with 3-8 compact
cylindrical spikes bearing white grains.
It is grown in Egypt, India and Africa as a wet-season crop. It not only furnishes food for the masses
but also is especially valuable in cold weather as a fuel plant. Flour made from Pearl Millet is very
nutritious and is used for bread or cake.
It produces a lot of forage that is succulent when young and can be
cut several times in a growing season.
It has been introduced into America as a forage crop. The wild ancestor is unknown. Ragi,
Eleusine coracna, is a tall grass that is also known as Finger
Millet, African Millet or Korakan. It has tufted stems, each with 4-6
spikes. Both upland and irrigated
forms are grown from Northern Africa to Indonesia. Ragi gives a very high yield often exceeding 1,500 lbs. per
acre. It even yields abundantly on
poor soil. It is a major crop in
India, especially during the rainy season and is an important food. The grain is free from insects and can be
stored for long periods. Ragi flour
is used for puddings and cakes and a fermented beverage is made from the
grain. Other millets belong to the genus Echinochloa. The Japanese or
Sanwa Millet,
E. frumentacea,
is an erect awnless grass with turgid purplish seeds. it has been cultivated in the United
States entirely as a forage crop for which it is very desirable because it
produces as many as eight crops in any given year and has a large leaf
area. In Asia it serves as a food
plant and is consumed as a porridge with rice. In Japan it is grown in areas where rice will not
flourish. A smaller species, the Shama Millet,
E. colona,
is also valuable as a forage and food crop, especially in the East Indies and
India. it is favored by laborers and is eaten by Hindus on fasting days. The common Barnyard Millet,
E. crusgalli, which is a weed in North America, is cultivated in India and
the Far East as a forage and food crop under the name “Bharti.” Wild rice, Zizania aquatica var.
angustifolia,
is harvested from wild and cultivated plants in North America. It is a tall anjnual grass that grows
partially submerged along the margins of lakes and sluggish streams inland,
and even in brackish areas along the coast, frequently covering hundreds of
acres. It has been an important food
of the Amerindians in eastern North America.
The grains are borne in slender panicles and drop off readily when
mature. The ancient way of harvest
involved pushing canoes through the rice plants and beating off the grains
into the bottom of the canoe. Later
the grains were dried in the sun or over fires and the husk was pounded or
charred off. Modern methods of
harvest and processing have expedited the harvest. Wild rice is very nutritious and palatable especially when
served with fowl and game. It is an
essential food for wild water fowl.
The seeds will only germinate if they have been constantly kept under
water. Wild rice also occurs in Western Asia where the young stems and
leaves are used as a vegetable and the straw is used for paper. In the United States wild rice is grown
commercially in Oregon and California and the northern Midwest States. This is a
grass, Coix lachryma-jobi, native to
Southeastern Asia. It has been
cultivated in most tropical countries.
It has large, shining, pear shaped fruits, which bear a resemblance to
tears. These grains are used as human
food and are also said to have medicinal properties. Some varieties, particularly the
Philippine Adlay, are good for forage. The fruits are used mainly for ornamental
purposes, being made into necklaces, mats, rosaries, etc. A beer-like beverage is made from the
seeds. There are many other plants that
are used in a manner similar to the cereals and smaller grains as sources of
human food. These are not grasses but
have often been referred to as cereals.
Buckwheat, Breadfruit and Quinoa are three of them Breadfruit,
Artocarpus utilis, is actually a fruit with the flavor of bread when
fried. It is native to Malaya and
Polynesia but is now widespread in the tropics. It has been cultivated since antiquity. This handsome tree reaches a height of
from 40-60 feet with deeply incised leaves.
The prickly fruits are about the size of a cantaloupe, are brownish
yellow when ripe with a fibrous yellow pulp.
They are often borne in small clusters. The fruit is eaten fresh or cooked. It is baked, broiled, roasted, fried or ground up and used for
bread. During the few months when the
fruit cannot be obtained a paste that has previously been made is
utilized. There are over 100
varieties known, some with seeds and others without. There are few plants that furnish a more
wholesome food for humans and animals, or have a greater yield. An eight-year-old tree may produce 700-800
fruits. The carbohydrate content is
particularly high. <bot386> Breadfruit Tree [Artocarpus altilis
(Park.) Fosb.(= communis Forst.)] (fruit) [Malaya-Polynesia] (ex.
northeastern Jamaica) <bot731> Breadfruit fruit (Artocarpus altilis
Fosberg) (vegetable, flour) [Polynesia] Buckwheat,
Fagopyrum sagittatum, is native to Central Asia and still grows wild in Manchuria
and Siberia. It is of relatively
recent use when compared to the other cereals, the earliest records being in
Chinese writings of the 10th and 11th Centuries. Buckwheat was introduced into Europe during the Middle Ages and
was first cultivated in 14365. It is
widely used on the Continent especially in Russia where it constitutes one of
the principal foods. It was brought
to America by the European settlers and is now widely grown especially in
Pennsylvania and New York. The plant
prefers a cool, moist climate and thrives best in sandy well-drained
soil. However it will grow in dry and
arid regions and areas with very poor soil and drainage. It is a small branching annual. The stems are smooth and succulent with
alternate hastate leaves. The
inflorescence is a raceme bearing small white or pinkish flowers. The fruit is a three-cornered achene that
resembles a beechnut. The seed or
groats are hulled and ground and the starchy flour is used for porridge,
soups and to make pancakes. The whole
grains, middlings, or flour are also fed to livestock and poultry and the
straw is used for feed and bedding.
Buckwheat is also grown as a fertilizer crop, cover crop, and catch
crop. The flowers are an important
source of honey. The crop is planted
late in the spring to avoid frosts, and is harvested in August and
September. Buckwheat is a source of
Rutin, a glucoside that has been used in the treatment of
capillary fragility associated with hypertension or high blood pressure. Quinoa,
Chenopodium quinoa, is a staple food of natives in South America. The plant is an animal herb that grows to a
height of 4-6 feet and resembles the common pigweed. It is native to Peru and was used in great
quantities by the Incas. The Spanish
explorers found nearly all of the nations using it. It is grown in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia where it is cultivated
at altitudes up to 13,000 ft. The
plants produce a large crop of white, red, or black seeds, which mature in
5-6 months. They are very nutritious,
containing 38 percent starch, 5 percent sugar, 19 percent protein and 5
percent fat. Whole seeds are used in
soups, or are ground into flour, which is made into bread or cakes. The seeds are also used in making
medicine, beer and as a poultry feed.
The ash is often mixed with coca leaves to give more flavor to the
latter. Quinoa has been introduced
into the United States where the thin leaves are used as a substitute for
spinach. |